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South Ireland-

  • 1 ros

    I
    seed, ros lìn, flax seed (Armstrong's only use for it), Irish ros, flax seed, Middle Irish ros, genealogy, Early Irish ross lín, flax seed (Corm.), ros, genealogy, to which Strachan compares Gothic frasts, for fra-s$$?t-s, from pro-sto (Stokes), a child. A usual word for seed is fras, which also means a "shower", but both are ultimately from *verso, flow, whence Greek $$Ge$$'/rsc, $$Ge$$`rsc, dew, and $$Ga$$'rscn, male. Dr. Cameron compared Greek $$G práson, leek (*pr$$.so), English furze.
    II
    a promontory, Irish ros, promontory (North Ireland), wood (South Ireland; its usual Irish meaning), Early Irish ross, promontory, wood; in the former sense from *pro-sto-s, "standing out before", root sta, stand, Latin sto, English stand, etc.; especially Sanskrit prastha, plateau. In the sense of "wood", ros is generally regarded as the same word as ros, promontory, explained as "promontorium nemorosum", with which is compared Welsh rhos, a moor, waste, coarse highland, Breton ros, a knoll.

    Etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language > ros

  • 2 British Wools

    These are classified as: - (1) Lustres; (2) Demi-lustres; (3) Downs; (4) Special wools; (5) Half-breds. They are divisible into two chief sorts - long wools and short wools. The long wools include the Lustre and Demi-lustre wools, and the short wools comprise Down wools and Special wools. Lustre Wools are Lincoln, Leicester, Notts and Yorkshire. Demi-lustre Wools are Border Leicester, Cotswold, Romney Marsh, Roscommon, Wensleydale and Devon. Short Wools include the Down Wools, Special Wools and Half-breds. Down Wools are Southdown, Shropshire Down, Suffolk Down, Oxford, Hampshire, Wiltshire and Dorset Downs. Special Wools are Cheviot, Herdwick, Blackfaced, Welsh and Shetland. Half-bred Wools are North, Scotch Cross, South Ireland and others. There are also the " Skin Wools," which are comprised of wool removed from the skins of slaughtered sheep (see skin wools). A description of each type of wool is given under its name.

    Dictionary of the English textile terms > British Wools

  • 3 Half-Bred Wools

    A term applied to wools produced Joy breeding from two types of pure bred sheep. North - This is a cross between Border Leicester and Cheviot. It is by far the most important and valuable and is usually classed as demi-lustre wool. It has a 6-in. staple and spins 46's quality. South Ireland- - Similar in quality and length to North wools, it is clean, but not so nice in handle. Scotch Cross is between Leicester and Blackfaced, and between Cheviot and Black-faced. It is inferior in quality. Other well-known crosses are: - Down-Cheviot, Leicester-Down, Down-North, Leicester-North. These are, however, never used for breeding. Lambs or hoggs are fed and slaughtered as they reach condition for the butcher, hence these wools are chiefly from skins. Very good half-breds are also grown in Nottingham, Leicester, Lincoln, Derbyshire and Warwickshire. Eastern Counties' half-breds are very good hosiery types, but are heavier, not so attractive, and have more grey fibres.

    Dictionary of the English textile terms > Half-Bred Wools

  • 4 república

    f.
    1 republic.
    2 Republic.
    * * *
    1 republic
    \
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    * * *
    femenino republic
    * * *
    Ex. Each republic develops a system appropriate to its particular information needs and existing informational infrastructure.
    ----
    * república bananera = banana republic, mickey mouse country.
    * República Checa, la = Czech Republic, the.
    * República de Cabo Verde = Cape Verde.
    * República de Corea, la = Republic of Korea, the.
    * República de Croacia, la = Croatian Republic, the.
    * República de Irlanda = Republic of Ireland.
    * República de las Islas de Cabo Verde = Cape Verde Islands.
    * República de Mauricio = Mauritius.
    * República Democrática Alemana = German Democratic Republic (GDR).
    * República Democrática del Congo, la = Democratic Republic of Congo, the.
    * República de Sudáfrica = Republic of South Africa.
    * República de Suráfrica = Republic of South Africa.
    * República Dominicana = Dominican Republic.
    * República Eslovaca, la = Slovak Republic, the.
    * República Federal Alemana = Federal Republic of Germany (FDR).
    * República Irlandesa, la = Irish Republic, the.
    * República Popular China = Chinese People's Republic.
    * República Popular China, La = People's Republic of China, The.
    * República Popular Democrática de Corea, la = People's Democratic Republic of Korea, the.
    * repúblicas bálticas, las = Baltic republics, the.
    * república socialista = socialist republic.
    * república soviética = Soviet Republic.
    * República Togolesa, la = Togolese Republic, the.
    * * *
    femenino republic
    * * *

    Ex: Each republic develops a system appropriate to its particular information needs and existing informational infrastructure.

    * república bananera = banana republic, mickey mouse country.
    * República Checa, la = Czech Republic, the.
    * República de Cabo Verde = Cape Verde.
    * República de Corea, la = Republic of Korea, the.
    * República de Croacia, la = Croatian Republic, the.
    * República de Irlanda = Republic of Ireland.
    * República de las Islas de Cabo Verde = Cape Verde Islands.
    * República de Mauricio = Mauritius.
    * República Democrática Alemana = German Democratic Republic (GDR).
    * República Democrática del Congo, la = Democratic Republic of Congo, the.
    * República de Sudáfrica = Republic of South Africa.
    * República de Suráfrica = Republic of South Africa.
    * República Dominicana = Dominican Republic.
    * República Eslovaca, la = Slovak Republic, the.
    * República Federal Alemana = Federal Republic of Germany (FDR).
    * República Irlandesa, la = Irish Republic, the.
    * República Popular China = Chinese People's Republic.
    * República Popular China, La = People's Republic of China, The.
    * República Popular Democrática de Corea, la = People's Democratic Republic of Korea, the.
    * repúblicas bálticas, las = Baltic republics, the.
    * república socialista = socialist republic.
    * república soviética = Soviet Republic.
    * República Togolesa, la = Togolese Republic, the.

    * * *
    republic
    Compuestos:
    ( pey); banana republic ( pej)
    federal republic
    * * *

    república sustantivo femenino
    republic
    república f Pol republic
    ' república' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    checa
    - checo
    - eslovaca
    - eslovaco
    - República Dominicana
    - República Oriental del Uruguay
    - RFA
    English:
    Czech
    - Dominican
    - Eire
    - Ireland
    - republic
    - Slovakia
    - federal
    * * *
    republic
    república bananera banana republic;
    la República Centroafricana the Central African Republic;
    la República Checa the Czech Republic;
    la República del Congo the Republic of the Congo;
    Antes la República Democrática Alemana o de Alemania the German Democratic Republic;
    la República Democrática del Congo the Democratic Republic of Congo;
    la República Dominicana the Dominican Republic;
    la República Eslovaca the Slovak Republic;
    república federal federal republic;
    Antes la República Federal Alemana o de Alemania the Federal Republic of Germany; Antes la República Federal de Yugoslavia the Yugoslav Federal Republic;
    la República de Irlanda the Republic of Ireland;
    la República Irlandesa the Irish Republic;
    la República Oriental del Uruguay = the official name of Uruguay;
    la República Popular China the People's Republic of China;
    la República Popular de Corea the Democratic People's Republic of Korea;
    la República de Sudáfrica the Republic of South Africa;
    Hist la República de Weimar the Weimar Republic
    * * *
    f republic
    * * *
    : republic
    * * *
    república n republic

    Spanish-English dictionary > república

  • 5 darse a la fuga

    to take flight
    * * *
    (v.) = flee, lam (it), go into + hiding, make + a quick getaway, take to + Posesivo + heels, run off
    Ex. The Ndzevane Refugee Settlement in south eastern Swaziland provides a home to Swazis displaced from South Africa and those fleeing the RENAMO terrorists in Mozambique.
    Ex. Though there were reports Bertollini was lamming it in Ireland, he told Michaud on Friday he never left the country.
    Ex. The three have been jailed for more than two weeks while a fourth journalist went into hiding after receiving a judicial summons.
    Ex. Paris and her boyfriend Benji were trying to make a quick getaway from paparazzi and fans when she fell over a step.
    Ex. When the lad heard it he got frightened, and took to his heels as though he were running a race.
    Ex. She ran off to take out the appropriate protection order against Mr. Pants, considering his intent to kill her.
    * * *
    (v.) = flee, lam (it), go into + hiding, make + a quick getaway, take to + Posesivo + heels, run off

    Ex: The Ndzevane Refugee Settlement in south eastern Swaziland provides a home to Swazis displaced from South Africa and those fleeing the RENAMO terrorists in Mozambique.

    Ex: Though there were reports Bertollini was lamming it in Ireland, he told Michaud on Friday he never left the country.
    Ex: The three have been jailed for more than two weeks while a fourth journalist went into hiding after receiving a judicial summons.
    Ex: Paris and her boyfriend Benji were trying to make a quick getaway from paparazzi and fans when she fell over a step.
    Ex: When the lad heard it he got frightened, and took to his heels as though he were running a race.
    Ex: She ran off to take out the appropriate protection order against Mr. Pants, considering his intent to kill her.

    Spanish-English dictionary > darse a la fuga

  • 6 huir

    v.
    1 to avoid.
    3 to flee from.
    Me huyeron los criminales The criminals fled from me.
    * * *
    (i changes to y before a, e, and o)
    Present Indicative
    huyo, huyes, huye, huimos, huís, huyen.
    Past Indicative
    huí, huiste, huyó, huimos, huisteis, huyeron.
    Present Subjunctive
    Imperfect Subjunctive
    Future Subjunctive
    Imperative
    huye (tú), huya (él/Vd.), huyamos (nos.), huid (vos.), huyan (ellos/Vds.).
    * * *
    verb
    2) fly
    * * *
    1. VI
    1) (=escapar) to run away, flee liter

    huyó despavorido cuando comenzaron los disparos — he ran away o liter fled in terror when the shooting started

    huyeron a Chipre — they escaped o liter fled to Cyprus

    huir de — [+ enemigo, catástrofe, pobreza] to flee from; [+ cárcel, peligro] to escape from; [+ familia] to run away from

    huir de su casa — [refugiados, civiles] to flee (from) one's home; [adolescente] to run away from home

    huir de la justicia — to fly from justice, fly from the law

    2) (=evitar)

    huir de — [+ protagonismo, publicidad, tópicos] to avoid; [+ calor, frío] to escape, escape from

    3) frm [tiempo] to fly, fly by
    2.
    VT (=esquivar) to avoid
    3.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo intransitivo
    a) ( escapar) to flee (liter or journ), escape

    huyó de la cárcel/la policía — he escaped from prison/the police

    en cuanto los vió salió huyendo — he ran away o fled when he saw them

    huir del país/de las llamas — to flee the country/from the flames

    2.
    huirse v pron (Méx)

    huirse CON alguien — to run away o off with somebody

    * * *
    = flee, escape, flee + the scene, get away, abscond, make off, lam (it), do + a bunk, flee away, make + a quick getaway.
    Ex. The Ndzevane Refugee Settlement in south eastern Swaziland provides a home to Swazis displaced from South Africa and those fleeing the RENAMO terrorists in Mozambique.
    Ex. Other words may be included in a stop-wordlist for some applications, but escape inclusion in other circumstances.
    Ex. Police are more likely to be killed by rational robbers fleeing the scene of a crime, who routinely use potentially lethal weapons as 'tools of the trade'.
    Ex. Guards in the lead car of the convoy threw their doors open and ran for cover, screaming, 'Get away, get away'.
    Ex. Hundreds of prisoners, including murderers, rapists and robbers, have absconded from open prisons since 1999.
    Ex. To pull off the heist, the thief stole a swipe card for the complex before using the wheelchair to make off.
    Ex. Though there were reports Bertollini was lamming it in Ireland, he told Michaud on Friday he never left the country.
    Ex. As soon as the advance was paid however the manager did a bunk with the money, around £100000, and was never seen nor heard of again.
    Ex. For this is the way with these common people; they will work up an enthusiasm one minute, and an hour later it will have fled away and left them cold and empty.
    Ex. Paris and her boyfriend Benji were trying to make a quick getaway from paparazzi and fans when she fell over a step.
    ----
    * emigrantes que huyen de su país en barca o patera = boat people.
    * hacer huir = drive away, chase + Nombre + off.
    * hacer huir en batalla = route.
    * huir a = run off to.
    * huir de la justicia = lam (it).
    * huir de la opresión = escape + the oppression.
    * huir de la realidad = escape + reality.
    * huir en desbandada = stampede.
    * huir en estampida = stampede.
    * huir en tropel = stampede.
    * salir huyendo = make off, do + a bunk.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo intransitivo
    a) ( escapar) to flee (liter or journ), escape

    huyó de la cárcel/la policía — he escaped from prison/the police

    en cuanto los vió salió huyendo — he ran away o fled when he saw them

    huir del país/de las llamas — to flee the country/from the flames

    2.
    huirse v pron (Méx)

    huirse CON alguien — to run away o off with somebody

    * * *
    = flee, escape, flee + the scene, get away, abscond, make off, lam (it), do + a bunk, flee away, make + a quick getaway.

    Ex: The Ndzevane Refugee Settlement in south eastern Swaziland provides a home to Swazis displaced from South Africa and those fleeing the RENAMO terrorists in Mozambique.

    Ex: Other words may be included in a stop-wordlist for some applications, but escape inclusion in other circumstances.
    Ex: Police are more likely to be killed by rational robbers fleeing the scene of a crime, who routinely use potentially lethal weapons as 'tools of the trade'.
    Ex: Guards in the lead car of the convoy threw their doors open and ran for cover, screaming, 'Get away, get away'.
    Ex: Hundreds of prisoners, including murderers, rapists and robbers, have absconded from open prisons since 1999.
    Ex: To pull off the heist, the thief stole a swipe card for the complex before using the wheelchair to make off.
    Ex: Though there were reports Bertollini was lamming it in Ireland, he told Michaud on Friday he never left the country.
    Ex: As soon as the advance was paid however the manager did a bunk with the money, around £100000, and was never seen nor heard of again.
    Ex: For this is the way with these common people; they will work up an enthusiasm one minute, and an hour later it will have fled away and left them cold and empty.
    Ex: Paris and her boyfriend Benji were trying to make a quick getaway from paparazzi and fans when she fell over a step.
    * emigrantes que huyen de su país en barca o patera = boat people.
    * hacer huir = drive away, chase + Nombre + off.
    * hacer huir en batalla = route.
    * huir a = run off to.
    * huir de la justicia = lam (it).
    * huir de la opresión = escape + the oppression.
    * huir de la realidad = escape + reality.
    * huir en desbandada = stampede.
    * huir en estampida = stampede.
    * huir en tropel = stampede.
    * salir huyendo = make off, do + a bunk.

    * * *
    huir [ I20 ]
    vi
    1 (escapar) to flee ( literor journ), to escape
    estaba esperando la ocasión propicia para huir he was waiting for the right moment to make his escape o to run away o to escape
    en cuanto vio aparecer a la policía salió huyendo he ran away o fled when he saw the police
    huir DE algo/algn to flee FROM sth/sb
    huyó de las llamas she fled from the flames
    lograron huir de la policía they managed to escape o get away from the police
    huyó de la cárcel/del país he escaped from prison/fled the country
    huye de las aglomeraciones she avoids crowds
    huye de cualquier situación que suponga un enfrentamiento she runs away from any confrontational situation
    huirle A algn to avoid sb
    me huye como a la peste he avoids me like the plague
    ■ huirse
    ( Méx) huirse CON algn; to run away o off WITH sb
    * * *

     

    huir ( conjugate huir) verbo intransitivo
    a) ( escapar) to flee (liter or journ), escape;


    huir del país to flee the country
    b) ( tratar de evitar) huir de algo to avoid sth;

    huirle a algn to avoid sb
    huir verbo intransitivo
    1 (escapar) to run away [de, from], flee: huyeron a Méjico, they fled to México
    está huyendo de la justicia, he's on the run from the law ➣ Ver nota en escape
    2 (esquivar, rehuir) to avoid: huye de las personas, she avoids people
    huyo de esas situaciones, I avoid that kind of situation
    ' huir' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    quema
    - ahuyentar
    - arrancar
    - evitar
    - fugarse
    - huya
    - justicia
    English:
    defect
    - flee
    - getaway
    - run
    - desert
    - get
    * * *
    ♦ vi
    1. [escapar] [de enemigo, peligro] to flee (de from);
    huir del país to flee the country;
    huyó a Francia she fled to France;
    los jóvenes que huyen de sus hogares young people who run away from home;
    los aldeanos huían del incendio the villagers were fleeing from the fire;
    el tesorero huyó con varios millones the treasurer ran off with several million;
    se metieron en un taxi huyendo de los periodistas they got into a taxi in an attempt to get away from the journalists
    2. [evadirse] [de cárcel] to escape (de from)
    3.
    huir de algo [evitar] to avoid sth, to keep away from sth;
    siempre huyo de las grandes masas de gente I always try to avoid o stay away from large crowds of people;
    huye de la polémica she steers clear of controversy
    4. [tiempo] to fly by
    ♦ vt
    to avoid;
    me está huyendo últimamente he's been avoiding me lately
    * * *
    I v/i
    1 flee, escape (de from)
    2
    :
    huir de algo avoid sth
    II v/t avoid
    * * *
    huir {41} vi
    1) escapar: to escape, to flee
    2)
    huir de : to avoid
    * * *
    huir vb
    1. (escaparse) to escape
    2. (evitar) to avoid
    huir del país to flee the country [pt. & pp. fled]

    Spanish-English dictionary > huir

  • 7 norte

    adj.
    north, northern.
    viento norte north wind
    en la mitad norte del país in the northern half of the country
    partieron con rumbo norte they set off northwards
    m.
    1 north (geography).
    viento del norte north wind
    ir hacia el norte to go north(wards)
    el norte de España northern Spain, the north of Spain
    está al norte de Madrid it's (to the) north of Madrid
    2 goal, objective (objetivo).
    perder el norte to lose one's bearings o way
    3 guide.
    * * *
    1 north
    2 (viento) northerly wind
    3 figurado (dirección, sentido) direction; (objetivo) aim
    \
    perder el norte to lose sight of one's objectives, lose one's way
    sin norte aimless
    norte magnético magnetic North
    * * *
    1. noun m. 2. adj.
    * * *
    1.
    ADJ [región] northern; [dirección] northerly; [viento] north

    la zona norte de la ciudad — the northern part of the city, the north of the city

    2. SM
    1) (=punto cardinal) north
    2) [de región, país] north
    3) (=viento) north wind
    4) (=meta) aim, objective

    perder el norte — to lose one's way, go astray

    5) Caribe (=Estados Unidos) ≈ United States
    6) Caribe (=llovizna) drizzle
    * * *
    I
    adjetivo invariable < región> northern

    en la parte norte del país — in the northern part o the north of the country

    la costa/el ala norte — the north coast/wind

    II
    a) (parte, sector)
    b) ( punto cardinal) north, North
    c) ( rumbo)
    * * *
    I
    adjetivo invariable < región> northern

    en la parte norte del país — in the northern part o the north of the country

    la costa/el ala norte — the north coast/wind

    II
    a) (parte, sector)
    b) ( punto cardinal) north, North
    c) ( rumbo)
    * * *
    norte1
    1 = north.

    Ex: Short-loans could move adjacent to the main issue desk at the south by moving furniture, or at the north by rearranging the catalogue.

    * al extremo norte = northernmost.
    * al norte de = north of.
    * al norte del estado = upstate.
    * Carolina del Norte = North Carolina.
    * Corea del Norte = North Korea.
    * del norte = northern, Hyperborean.
    * derecho hacia al norte = due north.
    * directamente hacia el norte = due north.
    * en dirección norte = northbound.
    * en el norte del estado = upstate.
    * Europa del norte = northern Europe.
    * exactamente al norte = due north.
    * hacia el norte = northbound.
    * Hemisferio Norte, el = Northern Hemisphere, the.
    * Irlanda del Norte = Northern Ireland.
    * Mar del Norte, el = North Sea, the.
    * norte de América = northern America.
    * norte de Europa = northern Europe.
    * norte del Pacífico = North Pacific.
    * OTAN (Organización del Tratado del Atlántico Norte) = NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation).
    * Polo Norte, el = North Pole, the.

    norte2
    2 = sense of purpose, goal.
    Nota: Línea fundamental de actuación que un servicio bibliotecario pretende conseguir y que generalmente se descompone en objetivos particulares.

    Ex: This article argues that those in leadership roles bear a special responsibility for creating a sense of purpose in the organisation.

    Ex: Karen set the theme in her keynote address that booksellers, publishers and librarians often have different goals and perceptions.
    * perder el norte = be off course, fly off + course.
    * sin norte = aimless, off course, rudderless.

    * * *
    [ Vocabulary notes (Spanish) ] ‹región› northern
    en la parte norte del país in the northern part of the country, in the north of the country
    iban en dirección norte they were heading north o northward(s), they were heading in a northerly direction
    la costa norte de África the north coast of Africa
    la cara norte de la montaña the north o northern face of the mountain
    el Atlántico norte the North Atlantic
    (parte, sector): el norte the north
    en el norte del país in the north of the country
    viven al norte de Matagalpa they live (to the) north of Matagalpa
    está en el norte de África it is in North Africa
    la aguja señala hacia el/al Norte the needle points north
    vientos flojos del Norte light northerly winds, light winds from the north
    estas avenidas van de Norte a Sur these avenues run north-south
    caminaron hacia el Norte they walked north o northward(s)
    la casa da/está orientada al norte the house faces north
    está más al norte it's further north
    3
    (meta): su único norte es progresar en su carrera his sole aim is to further his career
    el norte que guía nuestros pasos the light which guides our steps ( liter)
    perder el norte de la realidad to lose sight of reality
    4
    Norte ( Pol): el Norte the North
    diálogo Norte-Sur North-South dialogue
    5
    * * *

    Multiple Entries:
    N.    
    norte
    N. (
    ◊ norte) North, N

    norte adjetivo invariable ‹ región› northern;

    ‹costa/ala› north ( before n);
    ◊ iban en dirección norte they were heading north o northward(s)

    ■ sustantivo masculino
    north, North;
    al norte de Matagalpa to the north of Matagalpa;
    vientos del Nnorte northerly winds;
    caminaron hacia el Nnorte they walked north o northward(s);
    la casa da al norte the house faces north
    norte sustantivo masculino
    1 north: está en el norte de España, it is in the north of Spain
    2 (viento) north wind
    3 (meta, aspiración) aim, goal
    ♦ Locuciones: perder el norte, to lose one's bearings o to be at a loss (about what to do): ha perdido el norte, ya no sabe qué hacer, he's lost his bearings, he doesn't know how to go on

    ' norte' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    América
    - barrer
    - Corea del Norte
    - darse
    - estar
    - feudo
    - Irlanda
    - limitar
    - mirar
    - orientar
    - OTAN
    - polo
    - señalar
    - hemisferio
    - ladera
    - moro
    - N.
    - Norteamérica
    - norteamericano
    - por
    - rumbo
    - tomar
    English:
    blow
    - equator
    - extend
    - N
    - NATO
    - north
    - North America
    - North Korea
    - North Pole
    - northern
    - Northern Ireland
    - northward
    - Pole
    - prospect
    - sea
    - tell
    - to
    - up
    - aimless
    - direction
    - due
    - face
    - -facing
    - head
    - northerly
    - pole
    - trouble
    - true
    - uptown
    * * *
    ♦ adj inv
    [posición, parte] north, northern;
    viento norte north wind;
    la cara norte de la montaña the north face of the mountain;
    la costa norte the north coast;
    habrá tiempo soleado en la mitad norte del país it will be sunny in the northern half of the country;
    partieron con rumbo norte they set off northwards;
    un frente frío que se desplaza en dirección norte a cold front moving north o northwards
    ♦ nm
    1. [zona] north;
    está al norte de Santiago it's (to the) north of Santiago;
    la fachada da al norte the front of the building faces north;
    viento del norte north wind;
    habrá lluvias en el norte (del país) there will be rain in the north (of the country);
    ir hacia el norte to go north(wards);
    el Norte de África North Africa
    norte geográfico true north;
    el norte magnético magnetic north
    2. Pol
    el Norte [mundo desarrollado] the North
    3. Am
    el Norte [Estados Unidos] the United States
    4. [punto cardinal] north
    5. [viento] north wind
    6. [objetivo] goal, objective;
    perder el norte to lose one's bearings o way
    7. PRico [llovizna] drizzle
    * * *
    m north;
    al norte de north of;
    perder el norte fig lose one’s way
    * * *
    norte adj
    : north, northern
    norte nm
    1) : north
    2) : north wind
    3) meta: aim, objective
    * * *
    norte n north

    Spanish-English dictionary > norte

  • 8 Vignoles, Charles Blacker

    [br]
    b. 31 May 1793 Woodbrook, Co. Wexford, Ireland
    d. 17 November 1875 Hythe, Hampshire, England
    [br]
    English surveyor and civil engineer, pioneer of railways.
    [br]
    Vignoles, who was of Huguenot descent, was orphaned in infancy and brought up in the family of his grandfather, Dr Charles Hutton FRS, Professor of Mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. After service in the Army he travelled to America, arriving in South Carolina in 1817. He was appointed Assistant to the state's Civil Engineer and surveyed much of South Carolina and subsequently Florida. After his return to England in 1823 he established himself as a civil engineer in London, and obtained work from the brothers George and John Rennie.
    In 1825 the promoters of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) lost their application for an Act of Parliament, discharged their engineer George Stephenson and appointed the Rennie brothers in his place. They in turn employed Vignoles to resurvey the railway, taking a route that would minimize objections. With Vignoles's route, the company obtained its Act in 1826 and appointed Vignoles to supervise the start of construction. After Stephenson was reappointed Chief Engineer, however, he and Vignoles proved incompatible, with the result that Vignoles left the L \& MR early in 1827.
    Nevertheless, Vignoles did not sever all connection with the L \& MR. He supported John Braithwaite and John Ericsson in the construction of the locomotive Novelty and was present when it competed in the Rainhill Trials in 1829. He attended the opening of the L \& MR in 1830 and was appointed Engineer to two railways which connected with it, the St Helens \& Runcorn Gap and the Wigan Branch (later extended to Preston as the North Union); he supervised the construction of these.
    After the death of the Engineer to the Dublin \& Kingstown Railway, Vignoles supervised construction: the railway, the first in Ireland, was opened in 1834. He was subsequently employed in surveying and constructing many railways in the British Isles and on the European continent; these included the Eastern Counties, the Midland Counties, the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyme \& Manchester (which proved for him a financial disaster from which he took many years to recover), and the Waterford \& Limerick. He probably discussed rail of flat-bottom section with R.L. Stevens during the winter of 1830–1 and brought it into use in the UK for the first time in 1836 on the London \& Croydon Railway: subsequently rail of this section became known as "Vignoles rail". He considered that a broader gauge than 4 ft 8½ in. (1.44 m) was desirable for railways, although most of those he built were to this gauge so that they might connect with others. He supported the atmospheric system of propulsion during the 1840s and was instrumental in its early installation on the Dublin \& Kingstown Railway's Dalkey extension. Between 1847 and 1853 he designed and built the noted multi-span suspension bridge at Kiev, Russia, over the River Dnieper, which is more than half a mile (800 m) wide at that point.
    Between 1857 and 1863 he surveyed and then supervised the construction of the 155- mile (250 km) Tudela \& Bilbao Railway, which crosses the Cantabrian Pyrenees at an altitude of 2,163 ft (659 m) above sea level. Vignoles outlived his most famous contemporaries to become the grand old man of his profession.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society 1829. FRS 1855. President, Institution of Civil Engineers 1869–70.
    Bibliography
    1830, jointly with John Ericsson, British patent no. 5,995 (a device to increase the capability of steam locomotives on grades, in which rollers gripped a third rail).
    1823, Observations upon the Floridas, New York: Bliss \& White.
    1870, Address on His Election as President of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
    Further Reading
    K.H.Vignoles, 1982, Charles Blacker Vignoles: Romantic Engineer, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (good modern biography by his great-grandson).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Vignoles, Charles Blacker

  • 9 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 10 MacNeill, Sir John Benjamin

    [br]
    b. 1793 (?) Mount Pleasant, near Dundalk, Louth, Ireland
    d. 2 March 1880
    [br]
    Irish railway engineer and educator.
    [br]
    Sir John MacNeill became a pupil of Thomas Telford and served under him as Superintendent of the Southern Division of the Holyhead Road from London to Shrewsbury. In this capacity he invented a "Road Indicator" or dynamometer. Like other Telford followers, he viewed the advent of railways with some antipathy, but after the death of Telford in 1834 he quickly became involved in railway construction and in 1837 he was retained by the Irish Railway Commissioners to build railways in the north of Ireland (Vignoles received the commission for the south). Much of his subsequent career was devoted to schemes for Irish railways, both those envisaged by the Commissioners and other private lines with more immediately commercial objectives. He was knighted in 1844 on the completion of the Dublin \& Drogheda Railway along the east coast of Ireland. In 1845 MacNeill lodged plans for over 800 miles (1,300 km) of Irish railways. Not all of these were built, many falling victim to Irish poverty in the years after the Famine, but he maintained a large staff and became financially embarrassed. His other schemes included the Grangemouth Docks in Scotland, the Liverpool \& Bury Railway, and the Belfast Waterworks, the latter completed in 1843 and subsequently extended by Bateman.
    MacNeill was an engineer of originality, being the person who introduced iron-lattice bridges into Britain, employing the theoretical and experimental work of Fairbairn and Eaton Hodgkinson (the Boyne Bridge at Drogheda had two such spans of 250ft (76m) each). He also devised the Irish railway gauge of 5 ft 2 in. (1.57 m). Consulted by the Board of Trinity College, Dublin, regarding a School of Engineering in 1842, he was made an Honorary LLD of the University and appointed the first Professor of Civil Engineering, but he relinquished the chair to his assistant, Samuel Downing, in 1846. MacNeill was a large and genial man, but not, we are told, "of methodical and business habit": he relied heavily on his subordinates. Blindness obliged him to retire from practice several years before his death. He was an early member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, joining in 1827, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1838.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1838.
    Further Reading
    Dictionary of National Biography. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
    73:361–71.
    AB

    Biographical history of technology > MacNeill, Sir John Benjamin

  • 11 Behr, Fritz Bernhard

    [br]
    b. 9 October 1842 Berlin, Germany
    d. 25 February 1927
    [br]
    German (naturalized British in 1876) engineer, promoter of the Lartigue monorail system.
    [br]
    Behr trained as an engineer in Britain and had several railway engineering appointments before becoming associated with C.F.M.-T. Lartigue in promoting the Lartigue monorail system in the British Isles. In Lartigue's system, a single rail was supported on trestles; vehicles ran on the rail, their bodies suspended pannier-fashion, stabilized by horizontal rollers running against light guide rails fixed to the sides of the trestles. Behr became Managing Director of the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway Company, which in 1888 opened its Lartigue system line between those two places in the south-west of Ireland. Three locomotives designed by J.T.A. Mallet were built for the line by Hunslet Engine Company, each with two horizontal boilers, one either side of the track. Coaches and wagons likewise were in two parts. Technically the railway was successful, but lack of traffic caused the company to go bankrupt in 1897: the railway continued to operate until 1924.
    Meanwhile Behr had been thinking in terms far more ambitious than a country branch line. Railway speeds of 150mph (240km/h) or more then lay far in the future: engineers were uncertain whether normal railway vehicles would even be stable at such speeds. Behr was convinced that a high-speed electric vehicle on a substantial Lartigue monorail track would be stable. In 1897 he demonstrated such a vehicle on a 3mile (4.8km) test track at the Brussels International Exhibition. By keeping the weight of the motors low, he was able to place the seats above rail level. Although the generating station provided by the Exhibition authorities never operated at full power, speeds over 75mph (120 km/h) were achieved.
    Behr then promoted the Manchester-Liverpool Express Railway, on which monorail trains of this type running at speeds up to 110mph (177km/h) were to link the two cities in twenty minutes. Despite strong opposition from established railway companies, an Act of Parliament authorizing it was made in 1901. The Act also contained provision for the Board of Trade to require experiments to prove the system's safety. In practice this meant that seven miles of line, and a complete generating station to enable trains to travel at full speed, must be built before it was known whether the Board would give its approval for the railway or not. Such a condition was too severe for the scheme to attract investors and it remained stillborn.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    H.Fayle, 1946, The Narrow Gauge Railways of Ireland, Greenlake Publications, Part 2, ch. 2 (describes the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway and Behr's work there).
    D.G.Tucker, 1984, "F.B.Behr's development of the Lartigue monorail", Transactions of
    the Newcomen Society 55 (covers mainly the high speed lines).
    See also: Brennan, Louis
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Behr, Fritz Bernhard

  • 12 Civil aircraft marking

    Abbreviation: 3A (Monaco), 3B (Mauritius), 3C (Equatorial Guinea), 3D (Swaziland), 4R (Sri Lanka), 4X (Israel), 5A (Libya), 5B (Cyprus), 5H (Tanzania), 5N (Nigeria), 5T (Mauritania), 5U (Niger), 5V (Togo), 5W (Western Samoa), 5X (Uganda), 5Y (Kenya), 6O (Somalia), 6V (Senegal), 6Y (Jamaica), 7O (Yemen), 7P (Lesotho), 7Q (Malawi), 7T (Algeria), 8P (Barbados), 8Q (Maldives), 8R (Guyana), 9G (Ghana), 9H (Malta), 9J (Zambia), 9K (Kuwait), 9L (Sierra Leone), 9M (Malaysia), 9N (Nepal), 9Q/9T (Zaire), 9U (Burundi), 9V (Singapore), 9XR (Rwanda), 9Y (Trinidad & Tobago), A2 (Botswana), A3 (Tonga), A40 (Oman), A5 (Bhutan), A6 (United Arab Emirates), A7 (Qatar), A9C (Bahrain), AP (Pakistan), B (China, People's Republic), C/CF (Canada), C3 (Andorra), C5 (Gambia), C6 (Bahamas), C9 (Mozambique), CC (Chile), CN (Morocco), CP (Bolivia), CS (Portugal), CU (Cuba), CX (Uruguay), D (Germany), D2 (Angola), D4 (Cape Verde), D6 (Comoros), DQ (Fiji), EC (Spain), EI (Ireland/Eire), EL (Liberia), EP (Iran), ES (Estonia), ET (Ethiopia), F (France), G (United Kingdom), H4 (Solomon Islands), HA (Hungary), HB (Switzerland), HC (Ecuador), HH (Haiti), HI (Dominican Republic), HK (Colombia), HL (Korea, South), HP (Panama), HR (Honduras), HS (Thailand), HZ (Saudi Arabia), I (Italy), J2 (Djibouti), J3 (Grenada), J6 (St Lucia), J7 (Dominica), J8 (St Vincent & Grenadines), JA (Japan), JY (Jordan), LN (Norway), LV (Argentina), LX (Luxembourg), LZ (Bulgaria), MI (Marshall Islands), N (United States), OB (Peru), OD (Lebanon), OE (Austria), OH (Finland), OK (former Czechoslovakia), OO (Belgium), OY (Denmark), P (Korea, North), PH (Netherlands), PK (Indonesia), PP/PT (Brazil), PZ (Suriname), RDPL (Laos), RM (Madagascar), RP (Philippines), S2 (Bangladesh), S7 (Seychelles), SE (Sweden), SL (Slovenia), SP (Poland), ST (Sudan), SU (Egypt), SX (Greece), T2 (Tuvalu), T3 (Kiribati), T7 (San Marino), TC (Turkey), TF (Iceland), TG (Guatemala), TI (Costa Rica), TJ (Cameroon), TL (Central African Republic), TN (Congo), TR (Gabon), TS (Tunisia), TT (Chad), TY (Benin), TZ (Mali), V2 (Antigua & Barbuda), V3 (Belize), V4 (St Kitts & Nevis), V5 (Namibia), V8 (Brunei), VH (Australia), VN (Vietnam), VP-F (Falkland Islands), VP-LA (Anguilla), VQ-T (Turks & Caicos Islands), VR-B (Bermuda), VR-C (Cayman Islands), VT (India), XA/XB/XC (Mexico), XT (Burkina Faso), XY (Myanmar/Burma), YA (Afghanistan), YI (Iraq), YK (Syria), YL (Latvia), YN (Nicaragua), YR (Romania), YS (El Salvador), YU (former Yugoslavia), YV (Venezuela), Z (Zimbabwe), ZA (Albania), ZK (New Zealand), ZP (Paraguay), ZS (South Africa)

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > Civil aircraft marking

  • 13 апостиль

    юр. apostille; apostil
    Специальный штамп, который в соответствии с Гаагской конвенцией об отмене требований легализации иностранных официальных документов, совершенной 5 октября 1961 года (вступившей в силу для Российской Федерации 31 мая 1992 года), проставляется на официальных документах, исходящих лишь от учреждений и организаций Российской Федерации как участника Гаагской конвенции, и не требует дальнейшего заверения или легализации, признается официальными органами всех государств-участников Конвенции. Образец апостиля установлен Конвенцией, отменяющей требование легализации иностранных официальных документов (заключена в Гааге 05.10.61, вступила в силу для России 31.05.92).
    The Hague Legalization Convention is in force in the following countries. But see the next question regarding how the change of status of a country affects treaty obligations. Click on the name of the country for specific information about the competent authority to issue apostille certificates and other details on how the Hague Legalization Convention works in that country.
    ANDORRA
    ANGOLA
    ANGUILLA
    ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
    ARGENTINA
    ARMENIA
    ARUBA
    AUSTRALIA
    AUSTRIA
    BAHAMAS
    BARBADOS
    BELARUS
    BELGIUM
    BELIZE
    BERMUDA
    BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
    BOTSWANA
    BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS
    BRUNEI
    BULGARIA
    CAYMAN ISLANDS
    CHINA (Hong Kong SAR (Special Administrative Region) ONLY)
    CHINA (Macau SAR (Special Administrative Region) ONLY)
    COLOMBIA
    COMOROS ISLANDS
    CROATIA
    CYPRUS
    CZECH REPUBLIC
    DJIBOUTI
    DOMINICA
    EL SALVADOR
    ESTONIA
    FALKLAND ISLANDS
    FIJI
    FINLAND
    FRANCE
    Extended to:
    NEW CALEDONIA
    WALLIS AND FUTUNA
    FRENCH POLYNESIA
    GERMANY
    GIBRALTAR
    GREECE
    GRENADA
    GUERNSEY
    HONG KONG SAR (China, Hong Kong SAR)
    HUNGARY
    IRELAND
    ISLE OF MAN
    ISRAEL
    ITALY
    JAPAN
    JERSEY
    KAZAKHSTAN
    LATVIA
    LESOTHO
    LIBERIA
    LIECHTENSTEIN
    LITHUANIA
    LUXEMBOURG
    MACAU SAR (China, Macau SAR)
    MACEDONIA
    MALAWI
    MALTA
    MARSHALL ISLANDS
    MAURITIUS
    MEXICO
    MONTSERRAT
    MOZAMBIQUE
    NAMIBIA
    NETHERLANDS
    Extended to:
    ARUBA
    NETHERLANDS ANTILLES (Curacao, Bonaire, St. Martin, St. Eustatius and Saba)
    SURINAME
    NEW ZEALAND
    NIUE
    NORWAY
    PANAMA
    PORTUGAL
    Extended to:
    ANGOLA
    MOZAMBIQUE
    ROMANIA
    RUSSIAN FEDERATION
    ST. CHRISTOPHER (Kitts) AND NEVIS
    ST. GEORGIA AND SOUTH SANDWICH ISLANDS
    ST. HELENA
    ST. LUCIA
    ST. PIERRE AND MIQUELON
    ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES
    SAMOA
    SAN MARINO
    SEYCHELLES
    SLOVAKIA
    SLOVENIA
    SOLOMON ISLANDS
    SOUTH AFRICA
    SPAIN
    SURINAME
    SWAZILAND
    SWEDEN
    SWITZERLAND
    TONGA
    TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
    TURKEY
    TUVALU
    UNITED KINGDOM
    Extended to:
    JERSEY
    GUERNSEY
    ISLE OF MAN
    ANTIGUA
    BAHAMAS
    BARBADOS
    BERMUDA
    BRUNEI
    CAYMAN ISLANDS
    DOMINICA
    FALKLAND ISLANDS
    FIJI
    GIBRALTAR
    GRENADA
    HONG KONG
    MAURITIUS
    MONTSERRAT
    ST. HELENA
    ST. KITTS
    NEVIS
    ANGUILLA
    ST. LUCIA
    ST. VINCENT
    SEYCHELLES
    TURKS AND CAICOS
    VIRGIN ISLANDS, BRITISH
    UNITED STATES
    Extended to:
    50 STATES
    THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
    AMERICAN SAMOA
    GUAM (TERRITORY OF)
    NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS (COMMONWEALTH OF)
    PUERTO RICO
    U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
    VANUATU
    VENEZUELA
    YUGOSLAVIA

    Дополнительный универсальный русско-английский словарь > апостиль

  • 14 Brunel, Isambard Kingdom

    [br]
    b. 9 April 1806 Portsea, Hampshire, England
    d. 15 September 1859 18 Duke Street, St James's, London, England
    [br]
    English civil and mechanical engineer.
    [br]
    The son of Marc Isambard Brunel and Sophia Kingdom, he was educated at a private boarding-school in Hove. At the age of 14 he went to the College of Caen and then to the Lycée Henri-Quatre in Paris, after which he was apprenticed to Louis Breguet. In 1822 he returned from France and started working in his father's office, while spending much of his time at the works of Maudslay, Sons \& Field.
    From 1825 to 1828 he worked under his father on the construction of the latter's Thames Tunnel, occupying the position of Engineer-in-Charge, exhibiting great courage and presence of mind in the emergencies which occurred not infrequently. These culminated in January 1828 in the flooding of the tunnel and work was suspended for seven years. For the next five years the young engineer made abortive attempts to find a suitable outlet for his talents, but to little avail. Eventually, in 1831, his design for a suspension bridge over the River Avon at Clifton Gorge was accepted and he was appointed Engineer. (The bridge was eventually finished five years after Brunel's death, as a memorial to him, the delay being due to inadequate financing.) He next planned and supervised improvements to the Bristol docks. In March 1833 he was appointed Engineer of the Bristol Railway, later called the Great Western Railway. He immediately started to survey the route between London and Bristol that was completed by late August that year. On 5 July 1836 he married Mary Horsley and settled into 18 Duke Street, Westminster, London, where he also had his office. Work on the Bristol Railway started in 1836. The foundation stone of the Clifton Suspension Bridge was laid the same year. Whereas George Stephenson had based his standard railway gauge as 4 ft 8½ in (1.44 m), that or a similar gauge being usual for colliery wagonways in the Newcastle area, Brunel adopted the broader gauge of 7 ft (2.13 m). The first stretch of the line, from Paddington to Maidenhead, was opened to traffic on 4 June 1838, and the whole line from London to Bristol was opened in June 1841. The continuation of the line through to Exeter was completed and opened on 1 May 1844. The normal time for the 194-mile (312 km) run from Paddington to Exeter was 5 hours, at an average speed of 38.8 mph (62.4 km/h) including stops. The Great Western line included the Box Tunnel, the longest tunnel to that date at nearly two miles (3.2 km).
    Brunel was the engineer of most of the railways in the West Country, in South Wales and much of Southern Ireland. As railway networks developed, the frequent break of gauge became more of a problem and on 9 July 1845 a Royal Commission was appointed to look into it. In spite of comparative tests, run between Paddington-Didcot and Darlington-York, which showed in favour of Brunel's arrangement, the enquiry ruled in favour of the narrow gauge, 274 miles (441 km) of the former having been built against 1,901 miles (3,059 km) of the latter to that date. The Gauge Act of 1846 forbade the building of any further railways in Britain to any gauge other than 4 ft 8 1/2 in (1.44 m).
    The existence of long and severe gradients on the South Devon Railway led to Brunel's adoption of the atmospheric railway developed by Samuel Clegg and later by the Samuda brothers. In this a pipe of 9 in. (23 cm) or more in diameter was laid between the rails, along the top of which ran a continuous hinged flap of leather backed with iron. At intervals of about 3 miles (4.8 km) were pumping stations to exhaust the pipe. Much trouble was experienced with the flap valve and its lubrication—freezing of the leather in winter, the lubricant being sucked into the pipe or eaten by rats at other times—and the experiment was abandoned at considerable cost.
    Brunel is to be remembered for his two great West Country tubular bridges, the Chepstow and the Tamar Bridge at Saltash, with the latter opened in May 1859, having two main spans of 465 ft (142 m) and a central pier extending 80 ft (24 m) below high water mark and allowing 100 ft (30 m) of headroom above the same. His timber viaducts throughout Devon and Cornwall became a feature of the landscape. The line was extended ultimately to Penzance.
    As early as 1835 Brunel had the idea of extending the line westwards across the Atlantic from Bristol to New York by means of a steamship. In 1836 building commenced and the hull left Bristol in July 1837 for fitting out at Wapping. On 31 March 1838 the ship left again for Bristol but the boiler lagging caught fire and Brunel was injured in the subsequent confusion. On 8 April the ship set sail for New York (under steam), its rival, the 703-ton Sirius, having left four days earlier. The 1,340-ton Great Western arrived only a few hours after the Sirius. The hull was of wood, and was copper-sheathed. In 1838 Brunel planned a larger ship, some 3,000 tons, the Great Britain, which was to have an iron hull.
    The Great Britain was screwdriven and was launched on 19 July 1843,289 ft (88 m) long by 51 ft (15.5 m) at its widest. The ship's first voyage, from Liverpool to New York, began on 26 August 1845. In 1846 it ran aground in Dundrum Bay, County Down, and was later sold for use on the Australian run, on which it sailed no fewer than thirty-two times in twenty-three years, also serving as a troop-ship in the Crimean War. During this war, Brunel designed a 1,000-bed hospital which was shipped out to Renkioi ready for assembly and complete with shower-baths and vapour-baths with printed instructions on how to use them, beds and bedding and water closets with a supply of toilet paper! Brunel's last, largest and most extravagantly conceived ship was the Great Leviathan, eventually named The Great Eastern, which had a double-skinned iron hull, together with both paddles and screw propeller. Brunel designed the ship to carry sufficient coal for the round trip to Australia without refuelling, thus saving the need for and the cost of bunkering, as there were then few bunkering ports throughout the world. The ship's construction was started by John Scott Russell in his yard at Millwall on the Thames, but the building was completed by Brunel due to Russell's bankruptcy in 1856. The hull of the huge vessel was laid down so as to be launched sideways into the river and then to be floated on the tide. Brunel's plan for hydraulic launching gear had been turned down by the directors on the grounds of cost, an economy that proved false in the event. The sideways launch with over 4,000 tons of hydraulic power together with steam winches and floating tugs on the river took over two months, from 3 November 1857 until 13 January 1858. The ship was 680 ft (207 m) long, 83 ft (25 m) beam and 58 ft (18 m) deep; the screw was 24 ft (7.3 m) in diameter and paddles 60 ft (18.3 m) in diameter. Its displacement was 32,000 tons (32,500 tonnes).
    The strain of overwork and the huge responsibilities that lay on Brunel began to tell. He was diagnosed as suffering from Bright's disease, or nephritis, and spent the winter travelling in the Mediterranean and Egypt, returning to England in May 1859. On 5 September he suffered a stroke which left him partially paralysed, and he died ten days later at his Duke Street home.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    L.T.C.Rolt, 1957, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, London: Longmans Green. J.Dugan, 1953, The Great Iron Ship, Hamish Hamilton.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Brunel, Isambard Kingdom

  • 15 Coade, Eleanor

    [br]
    b. 24 June 1733 Exeter, Devon, England
    d. 18 November 1821 Camberwell, London, England
    [br]
    English proprietor of the Coade Factory, making artificial stone.
    [br]
    Born Elinor Coade, she never married but adopted, as was customary in business in the eighteenth century, the courtesy title of Mrs. Following the bankruptcy and death of her father, George Coade, in Exeter, Eleanor and her mother (also called Eleanor) moved to London and founded the works at Lambeth, South London, in 1769 that later became famous as the Coade factory. The factory was located at King's Arms Stairs, Narrow Wall. During the eighteenth century, several attempts had been made in other businesses to manufacture a durable, malleable artificial stone that would be acceptable to architects for decorative use. These substances were not very successful, but Coade stone was different. Although stories are legion about the secret formula supposedly used in this artificial stone, modern methods have established the exact formula.
    Coade stone was a stoneware ceramic material fired in a kiln. The body was remarkable in that it shrank only 8 per cent in drying and firing: this was achieved by using a combination of china clay, sand, crushed glass and grog (i.e. crushed and ground, previously fired stoneware). The Coade formula thus included a considerable proportion of material that, having been fired once already, was unshrinkable. Mrs Coade's name for the firm, Coade's Lithodipyra Terra-Cotta or Artificial Stone Manufactory (where "Lithodipyra" is a term derived from three Greek words meaning "stone", "twice" and "fire"), made reference to the custom of including such material (such as in Josiah Wedgwood's basalt and jasper ware). The especially low rate of shrinkage rendered the material ideal for making extra-life-size statuary, and large architectural, decorative features to be incorporated into stone buildings.
    Coade stone was widely used for such purposes by leading architects in Britain and Ireland from the 1770s until the 1830s, including Robert Adam, Sir Charles Barry, Sir William Chambers, Sir John Soane, John Nash and James Wyatt. Some architects introduced the material abroad, as far as, for example, Charles Bulfinch's United States Bank in Boston, Massachusetts, and Charles Cameron's redecoration for the Empress Catherine of the great palace Tsarkoe Selo (now Pushkin), near St Petersburg. The material so resembles stone that it is often mistaken for it, but it is so hard and resistant to weather that it retains sharpness of detail much longer than the natural substance. The many famous British buildings where Coade stone was used include the Royal Hospital, Chelsea, Carlton House and the Sir John Soane Museum (all of which are located in London), St George's Chapel at Windsor, Alnwick Castle in Northumberland, and Culzean Castle in Ayrshire, Scotland.
    Apart from the qualities of the material, the Coade firm established a high reputation for the equally fine quality of its classical statuary. Mrs Coade employed excellent craftsmen such as the sculptor John Bacon (1740–99), whose work was mass-produced by the use of moulds. One famous example which was widely reproduced was the female caryatid from the south porch of the Erechtheion on the acropolis of Athens. A drawing of this had appeared in the second edition of Stuart and Revett's Antiquities of Athens in 1789, and many copies were made from the original Coade model; Soane used them more than once, for example on the Bank of England and his own houses in London.
    Eleanor Coade was a remarkable woman, and was important and influential on the neo-classical scene. She had close and amicable relations with leading architects of the day, notably Robert Adam and James Wyatt. The Coade factory was enlarged and altered over the years, but the site was finally cleared during 1949–50 in preparation for the establishment of the 1951 Festival of Britain.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    A.Kelly, 1990, Mrs Coade's Stone, pub. in conjunction with the Georgian Group (an interesting, carefully written history; includes a detailed appendix on architects who used Coade stone and buildings where surviving work may be seen).
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Coade, Eleanor

  • 16 берег типа юго-западного побережья Ирландии

    General subject: South-West Ireland coast

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > берег типа юго-западного побережья Ирландии

  • 17 norte1

    1 = north.
    Ex. Short-loans could move adjacent to the main issue desk at the south by moving furniture, or at the north by rearranging the catalogue.
    ----
    * al extremo norte = northernmost.
    * al norte de = north of.
    * al norte del estado = upstate.
    * Carolina del Norte = North Carolina.
    * Corea del Norte = North Korea.
    * del norte = northern, Hyperborean.
    * derecho hacia al norte = due north.
    * directamente hacia el norte = due north.
    * en dirección norte = northbound.
    * en el norte del estado = upstate.
    * Europa del norte = northern Europe.
    * exactamente al norte = due north.
    * hacia el norte = northbound.
    * Hemisferio Norte, el = Northern Hemisphere, the.
    * Irlanda del Norte = Northern Ireland.
    * Mar del Norte, el = North Sea, the.
    * norte de América = northern America.
    * norte de Europa = northern Europe.
    * norte del Pacífico = North Pacific.
    * OTAN (Organización del Tratado del Atlántico Norte) = NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation).
    * Polo Norte, el = North Pole, the.

    Spanish-English dictionary > norte1

  • 18 partir

    partir [paʀtiʀ]
    ➭ TABLE 16
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    ► partir is conjugated with être.
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━intransitive verb
       a. ( = aller, quitter un lieu) to go ; ( = s'éloigner) to go away
    • es-tu prêt à partir ? are you ready to go?
    • quand partez-vous pour Paris ? when are you leaving for Paris?
    • les voilà partis ! they're off!
    ► partir de [personne] to leave
    • partons de l'hypothèse que... let's assume that...
    • en partant de ce principe... on that basis...
       b. ( = démarrer) [moteur] to start ; [train] to leave
    • c'est parti ! (inf) here we go! (inf)
       c. ( = être lancé) [fusée] to go up ; [coup de feu] to go off
    • faire partir [+ fusée] to launch ; [+ pétard] to set off
    • quand ils sont partis à discuter, il y en a pour des heures (inf) once they've got going on one of their discussions, they're at it for hours (inf)
       e. ( = disparaître) [tache] to come out ; [bouton de vêtement] to come off ; [douleur, rougeurs, boutons, odeur] to go
    • faire partir [+ tache] to remove ; [+ odeur] to get rid of
       f. ► à partir de from
    • à partir du moment où... ( = dès que) as soon as... ; ( = pourvu que) as long as...
    • pantalons à partir de 100 € trousers from 100 euros
    * * *
    paʀtiʀ
    1.
    verbe intransitif
    1) ( quitter un lieu) [personne] to leave, to go

    partez devant, je vous rejoins — go on ahead, I'll catch you up

    partir en courant/boitant/hurlant — to run off/to limp off/to go off screaming

    partir sans laisser d'adresse — ( sans laisser de traces) to disappear without trace

    partir pour le Mexique/l'Australie — to leave for Mexico/Australia

    ils sont partis en Écosse en stop — ( ils sont encore en voyage) they're hitchhiking to Scotland; ( dans le passé) they hitchhiked to Scotland

    partir à la guerre/au front — to go off to war/to the front

    3) ( se mettre en mouvement) [personne, voiture, car, train] to leave; [avion] to take off; [moteur] to start

    je pars — I'm off, I'm leaving

    à vos marques, prêts, partez! — on your marks, get set, go!

    4) ( être projeté) [flèche, balle] to be fired; [bouchon] to shoot out; [capsule] to shoot off; [réplique] to slip out

    elle était tellement énervée que la gifle est partie toute seule — she was so angry that she slapped him/her before she realized what she was doing ou before she could stop herself

    5) ( commencer) [chemin, route] to start

    partir favori — [concurrent, candidat] to start favourite [BrE]

    partir dernier — ( dans une course) to start last

    c'est parti! — ( ordre) go!

    et voilà, c'est parti (colloq), il pleut! — here we go, it's raining!

    être bien parti — [coureur, cheval, projet, travail, personne] to have got GB ou gotten US off to a good start

    c'est mal parti — (colloq) things don't look too good, it doesn't look too promising

    il a l'air parti (colloq) pour réussir — he seems to be heading for success

    le mauvais temps est parti (colloq) pour durer — it looks as if the bad weather is here to stay

    6) ( se fonder)

    partir de — to start from [idée, observation]

    7) ( s'enlever) [tache, saleté] to come out; [émail, peinture] to come off; [odeur] to go; [bouton, écusson, décoration] to come off
    8) ( être expédié) [colis, candidature] to be sent (off)
    9) ( se lancer)

    quand il est parti (colloq) on ne l'arrête plus — once he starts ou gets going there's no stopping him

    10) ( mourir) euph to go, to pass away euph

    2.
    à partir de locution prépositive from

    à partir du moment où — ( sens temporel) as soon as; ( sens conditionnel) as long as

    à partir de là, tout a basculé — from then on everything changed radically

    * * *
    paʀtiʀ vi

    J'aimerais partir quelque part au soleil. — I'd like to go somewhere sunny.

    Si vous partez pour un long voyage, n'oubliez pas de... — If you go off on a long trip, don't forget to..., If you go away on a long trip, don't forget to...

    Ils sont partis hier pour le Japon. — They went off to Japan yesterday.

    Il est parti à Londres pour apprendre l'anglais. — He's gone to London to learn English.

    2) (quitter un lieu) to go, to leave

    Partez, vous allez être en retard. — You should go, or you'll be late., You should leave, or you'll be late.

    Je peux partir? — Can I go now?, Can I leave now?

    Il est parti à sept heures. — He left at 7 o'clock., He went at 7 o'clock.

    Je lui ai téléphoné mais il était déjà parti. — I phoned him but he'd already gone., I phoned him but he'd already left.

    Il est parti de Nice à sept heures. — He left Nice at 7 o'clock.

    3) (s'éloigner d'un lieu) to go away, to go off, (en voiture) to drive away, to drive off

    Ils sont partis à toute allure. — They drove off at high speed.

    4) (= commencer)

    partir de [hypothèse, principe] — to start from, [élément d'une suite] to start from

    5) [moteur] to start
    6) [pétard] to go off
    7) [bouchon, toute pièce insérée] to come out
    8) [bouton, toute pièce attachée ou fixée] to come off
    9) [tache, marque] to come off

    à partir de; à partir de ce moment — from then on

    Je serai chez moi à partir de huit heures. — I'll be at home from eight o'clock onwards.

    À partir de Verneuil, c'est plus boisé. — After Verneuil, it's more forested.

    C'est fait à partir de graisse de marmotte. — It's made from marmot fat.

    À partir de là, tout est possible. — If that's the case, anything's possible.

    * * *
    partir verb table: partir
    A vi
    1 ( quitter un lieu) [personne] to leave, to go; partir sans manger to leave ou go without eating; partez devant, je vous rejoins go on ahead, I'll catch you up; tu pars déjà? are you leaving already?; partir à pied/en voiture/en avion to leave on foot/in a car/in a plane; est-ce qu'ils sont partis en avion ou en train? did they fly or did they take the train?; il est parti en ville à bicyclette he went to town on his bicycle; il est parti il y a cinq minutes he left five minutes ago; ils sont partis en Écosse en stop ( ils sont encore en voyage) they're hitchhiking to Scotland; ( dans le passé) they hitchhiked to Scotland; partir de to leave ou go from [ville, gare, aéroport]; de quelle gare pars-tu? which station are you leaving ou going from?; je suis partie de chez moi à 20 heures I left my house at 8 pm; faire partir qn to make sb leave; j'espère que je ne vous fais pas partir? I hope I'm not driving you away?; fais partir ce chien! get that dog out of here!; partir en courant/boitant/hurlant to run off/to limp off/to go off screaming; partir fâché to go off in a huff○; partir content to go away happy; partir avec qn to go off with sb; elle est partie avec un autre she went off with another man; partir sans laisser d'adresse lit to go away without leaving a forwarding address; ( sans laisser de traces) to disappear without trace;
    2 ( pour une destination) to go, to leave; partir loin/dans un pays lointain to go far away/to a far-off country; partir à Paris/à New York/au Mexique to go to Paris/to New York/to Mexico; je pars à Paris demain I'm going to Paris tomorrow, I'm off to Paris tomorrow; partir pour le Mexique/l'Australie to leave for Mexico/Australia; tu pars pour combien de temps? how long are you going for?; partir pour une semaine/six mois to go for a week/six months; est-ce que tu sais que je pars pour une semaine? did you know I was going away for a week?; partir en vacances to go on holiday GB ou vacation US (à to); nous partons en vacances dans les Vosges we're going on holiday GB ou vacation to the Vosges; partir en week-end to go away for the weekend; partir en week-end à Chamonix to go to Chamonix for the weekend; partir en voyage/expédition/croisière to go on a trip/an expedition/a cruise; partir à la guerre/au front to go off to war/to the front; partir au travail to go to work; partir à la pêche/chasse to go fishing/hunting; partir faire to go to do; elle est partie se reposer she's gone for a rest; partir en tournée to set off on tour GB ou on a tour US; partir en retraite to retire;
    3 ( se mettre en mouvement) [voiture, car, train] to leave; [avion] to take off; [moteur] to start; [personne] to be off, to leave; les coureurs sont partis the runners are off; le train à destination de Dijon va partir the train to Dijon is about to depart ou leave; à vos marques, prêts, partez! on your marks, get set, go!;
    4 ( être projeté) [flèche, balle] to be fired; [bouchon] to shoot out; [capsule] to shoot off; [réplique] to slip out; il jouait avec le fusil et le coup de feu est parti he was playing with the gun and it went off; la balle est partie, le blessant à l'épaule the shot was fired, wounding him in the shoulder; le bouchon est parti d'un seul coup the cork suddenly shot out; elle était tellement énervée que la gifle est partie toute seule she was so angry that she slapped him/her before she realized what she was doing ou before she could stop herself;
    5 ( commencer) [chemin, route] to start; le sentier part d'ici the path starts here; les branches qui partent du tronc the branches growing out from the trunk; les avenues qui partent de la Place de l'Étoile the avenues which radiate outwards from the Place de l'Étoile; partir favori [concurrent, candidat] to start favouriteGB (à une course for a race); partir gagnant/battu d'avance to be the winner/loser before one has even started; partir dernier ( dans une course) to start last; le troisième en partant de la gauche the third (starting) from the left; partir de rien to start from nothing; c'est parti! ( si l'on donne un ordre) go!; ( si l'on constate) here we go!; et voilà, c'est parti, il pleut! here we go, it's raining!; être bien parti○ lit [coureur, cheval] to have got GB ou gotten US off to a good start; fig [projet, travail, personne] to have got GB ou gotten US off to a good start; être bien parti pour gagner lit, fig to seem all set to win; l'entreprise a l'air bien partie the firm seems to have got off to a good start; être mal parti○ lit [coureur, cheval] to have got off to a bad start; fig [personne, pays, projet] to be in a bad way; avec la récession le pays est mal parti what with the recession the country is in a bad way; c'est mal parti○ things don't look too good; il faudrait qu'il fasse beau mais c'est mal parti it would be nice if the weather was fine but it doesn't look too promising; il a l'air parti pour réussir○ he seems to be heading for success; le mauvais temps est parti pour durer○ it looks as if the bad weather is here to stay;
    6 ( se fonder) partir de qch to start from sth; je suis parti d'une idée/observation très simple I started from a very simple idea/observation; l'auteur est parti d'un fait divers pour écrire son roman the author used a news snippet as a starting point for his novel; partir du principe que to work on the assumption that; partir d'une bonne intention or d'un bon sentiment [idée, geste] to be well-meant; (en) partant de là○… on that basis…;
    7 ( s'enlever) [tache, saleté] to come out; [émail, peinture] to come off; [odeur] to go; [bouton, écusson, décoration] to come off; j'ai beau frotter, ça ne part pas no matter how hard I rub, it won't come out; la saleté part bien/mal the dirt's coming off nicely/won't come out; l'étiquette est partie the label has come off; faire partir une tache/un graffiti to remove a stain/a piece of graffiti;
    8 ( être expédié) [colis, lettre, rapport, candidature] to be sent (off);
    9 ( se lancer) quand il est parti on ne l'arrête plus once he starts ou gets going there's no stopping him; partir dans des explications/un monologue to launch into explanations/a monologue; partir dans des digressions to start digressing;
    10 ( mourir) euph to go, to pass away euph.
    B à partir de loc prép
    1 ( dans l'espace) from; à partir d'ici/du feu rouge/du carrefour from here/the traffic lights/the crossroads;
    2 ( dans le temps) from; à partir de 16 heures/du 5 février from 4 o'clock/5 February (onwards); à partir de maintenant from now on; à partir du moment où ( sens temporel) as soon as; ( sens conditionnel) as long as; c'est possible à partir du moment où tu résides dans le pays it's possible as long as you are resident in the country; à partir de là, tout a basculé from then on everything changed radically;
    3 ( supérieur ou égal) from; à partir de 2 000 euros from 2,000 euros; les enfants ne sont admis qu'à partir de huit ans children under eight are not admitted;
    4 ( en utilisant) from; fabriqué à partir de pétrole/d'un alliage made from oil/an alloy;
    5 ( en se basant sur) from, on the basis of; faire une étude à partir de statistiques to base a study on statistics; à partir de cet exemple il a démontré que using ou from this example he proved that; à partir de ces chiffres/résultats il est possible de… on the basis of these figures/results it is possible to…; à partir d'un échantillon représentatif from ou on the basis of a representative sample; ⇒ courir, maille, mourir.
    [partir] verbe intransitif
    1. [s'en aller] to go, to leave
    pars, tu vas rater ton train (off you) go, or you'll miss your train
    empêche-la de partir stop her (going), don't let her go
    je ne vous fais pas partir, j'espère I hope I'm not chasing you away
    a. [prisonnier, otage] to set free, to let go, to release
    b. [écolier] to let out
    c. [employé] to let go
    je ne peux pas partir du bureau avant 17 h 30 I can't leave the office before 5:30
    (euphémisme) [mourir] to pass on ou away
    2. [se mettre en route] to set off ou out, to start off
    pars devant, je te rattrape go ahead, I'll catch up with you
    regarde cette circulation, on n'est pas encore partis! (familier) by the look of that traffic, we're not off yet!
    a. [personne] to fly (off)
    b. [courrier] to go air mail ou by air
    partir en bateau to go (off) by boat, to sail
    partir en voiture to go (off) by car, to drive off
    3. [se rendre] to go, to leave
    je pars à ou pour Toulon demain I'm leaving for ou I'm off to Toulon tomorrow
    partir à la campagne/montagne/mer to go (off) to the countryside/mountains/seaside
    4. [aller - pour se livrer à une activité] to go
    elle est partie au tennis/à la danse she's gone to play tennis/to her dance class
    partir à la chasse/pêche to go shooting/fishing
    partir à la recherche de to set off in search of, to go looking for
    partir en week-end to go off ou away for the weekend
    nous partons en excursion/voyage demain we're setting off on an excursion/a journey tomorrow
    partir skier/se promener to go skiing/for a walk
    5. [s'engager]
    quand elles sont parties sur leur boulot, c'est difficile de les arrêter (familier) once they start on about their job, there's no stopping them
    6. [démarrer - machine, moteur, voiture] to start (up) ; [ - avion] to take off, to leave ; [ - train] to leave, to depart ; [ - fusée] to go up ; [ - pétard] to go off ; [ - plante] to take
    excuse-moi, le mot est parti (tout seul) I'm sorry, the word just came out
    a. [moteur] to start (up)
    b. [pétard] to set ou to let off (separable)
    d. [plante] to get started
    7. [se mettre en mouvement, débuter - coureur, match, concert] to start (off)
    le match est bien/mal parti pour notre équipe the match has started well/badly for our team
    je le vois mal parti pour récupérer son titre the way he's going, I just can't see him winning back his title
    8. [se vendre] to sell
    9. [disparaître, s'effacer - inscription] to disappear, to be rubbed off ou out, to be worn off ; [ - tache] to disappear, to go, to come out ; [ - douleur] to go, to disappear ; [ - boutons] to come off ; [ - pellicules, odeur] to go
    a. [salissure] to get rid of, to remove
    b. [odeur] to get rid of, to clear
    c. [douleur] to ease
    10. [se défaire, se détacher - attache, bouton] to come off, to go ; [ - maille] to run ; [ - étiquette] to come off
    ————————
    partir de verbe plus préposition
    1. [dans l'espace]
    le ferry/marathon part de Brest the ferry sails/the marathon starts from Brest
    la cicatrice part du poignet et va jusqu'au coude the scar goes ou stretches from the wrist to the elbow
    c'est le quatrième en partant de la droite/du haut it's the fourth (one) from the right/top
    2. [dans le temps]
    3. [dans un raisonnement]
    partir du principe que to start from the principle that, to start by assuming that
    si l'on part de ce principe, il faudrait ne jamais contester on that basis, one should never protest
    4. [provenir de]
    sa remarque est partie du coeur his comment came ou was (straight) from the heart, it was a heartfelt remark
    ————————
    à partir de locution prépositionnelle
    1. [dans le temps] (as) from
    à partir de mardi starting from Tuesday, from Tuesday onwards
    à partir de (ce moment-) là, il ne m'a plus adressé la parole from that moment on ou from then on, he never spoke to me again
    2. [dans l'espace] (starting) from
    3. [numériquement]
    imposé à partir de 5 000 euros taxable from 5,000 euros upwards
    4. [avec, à base de] from

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > partir

  • 19 Field, Cyrus West

    SUBJECT AREA: Telecommunications
    [br]
    b. 30 November 1819 Stockbridge, Massachusetts, USA
    d. 12 July 1892 New York City, New York, USA
    [br]
    American financier and entrepreneur noted for his successful promotion of the first transatlantic telegraph cable.
    [br]
    At the age of 15 Field left home to seek his fortune in New York, starting work on Broadway as an errand boy for $1 per week. Returning to Massachusetts, in 1838 he became an assistant to his brother Matthew, a paper-maker, leaving to set up his own business two years later. By the age of 21 he was also a partner in a New York firm of paper wholesalers, but this firm collapsed because of large debts. Out of the wreckage he set up Cyrus W.Field \& Co., and by 1852 he had paid off all the debts. With $250,000 in the bank he therefore retired and travelled in South America. Returning to the USA, he then became involved with the construction of a telegraph line in Newfoundland by an English engineer, F.N. Osborne. Although the company collapsed, he had been fired by the dream of a transatlantic cable and in 1854 was one of the founders of the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company. He began to promote surveys and hold discussions with British telegraph pioneers and with Isambard Brunel, who was then building the Great Eastern steamship. In 1856 he helped to set up the Atlantic Telegraph Company in Britain and, as a result of his efforts and those of the British physicist and inventor Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), work began in 1857 on the laying of the first transatlantic cable from Newfoundland to Ireland. After many tribulations the cable was completed on 5 August 1857, but it failed after barely a month. Following several unsuccessful attempts to repair and replace it, the cable was finally completed on 27 July 1866. Building upon his success, Field expanded his business interests. In 1877 he bought a controlling interest in and was President of the New York Elevated Railroad Company. He also helped develop the Wabash Railroad and became owner of the New York Mail and Express newspaper; however, he subsequently suffered large financial losses.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Congressional Gold Medal.
    Further Reading
    A.C.Clarke, 1958, Voice Across the Sea, London: Frederick Muller (describes the development of the transatlantic telegraph).
    H.M.Field, 1893, Story of the Atlantic Telegraph (also describes the transatlantic telegraph development).
    L.J.Judson (ed.), 1893, Cyrus W.Field: His Life and Work (a complete biography).
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Field, Cyrus West

  • 20 Lartigue, Charles François Marie-Thérèse

    [br]
    b. 1834 Toulouse, France d. 1907
    [br]
    French engineer and businessman, inventor of the Lartigue monorail.
    [br]
    Lartigue worked as a civil engineer in Algeria and while there invented a simple monorail for industrial or agricultural use. It comprised a single rail carried on trestles; vehicles comprised a single wheel with two tubs suspended either side, like panniers. These were pushed or pulled by hand or, occasionally, hauled by mule. Such lines were used in Algerian esparto-grass plantations.
    In 1882 he patented a monorail system based on this arrangement, with important improvements: traction was to be mechanical; vehicles were to have two or four wheels and to be able to be coupled together; and the trestles were to have, on each side, a light guide rail upon which horizontal rollers beneath the vehicles would bear. Early in 1883 the Lartigue Railway Construction Company was formed in London and two experimental prototype monorails were subsequently demonstrated in public. One, at the Paris Agricultural Exhibition, had an electric locomotive that was built in two parts, one either side of the rail to maintain balance, hauling small wagons. The other prototype, in London, had a small, steam locomotive with two vertical boilers and was designed by Anatole Mallet. By now Lartigue had become associated with F.B. Behr. Behr was Managing Director of the construction company and of the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway Company, which obtained an Act of Parliament in 1886 to built a Lartigue monorail railway in the South West of Ireland between those two places. Its further development and successful operation are described in the article on Behr in this volume.
    A much less successful attempt to establish a Lartigue monorail railway took place in France, in the départment of Loire. In 1888 the council of the département agreed to a proposal put forward by Lartigue for a 10 1/2 mile (17 km) long monorail between the towns of Feurs and Panissières: the agreement was reached on the casting vote of the Chairman, a contact of Lartigue. A concession was granted to successive companies with which Lartigue was closely involved, but construction of the line was attended by muddle, delay and perhaps fraud, although it was completed sufficiently for trial trains to operate. The locomotive had two horizontal boilers, one either side of the track. But the inspectors of the department found deficiencies in the completeness and probable safety of the railway; when they did eventually agree to opening on a limited scale, the company claimed to have insufficient funds to do so unless monies owed by the department were paid. In the end the concession was forfeited and the line dismantled. More successful was an electrically operated Lartigue mineral line built at mines in the eastern Pyrenees.
    It appears to have reused equipment from the electric demonstration line, with modifications, and included gradients as steep as 1 in 12. There was no generating station: descending trains generated the electricity to power ascending ones. This line is said to have operated for at least two years.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1882, French patent no. 149,301 (monorail system). 1882, British patent no. 2,764 (monorail system).
    Further Reading
    D.G.Tucker, 1984, "F.B.Behr's development of the Lartigue monorail", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 55 (describes Lartigue and his work).
    P.H.Chauffort and J.-L.Largier, 1981, "Le monorail de Feurs à Panissières", Chemin defer régionaux et urbains (magazine of the Fédération des Amis des Chemins de Fer
    Secondaires) 164 (in French; describes Lartigue and his work).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Lartigue, Charles François Marie-Thérèse

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